Figure Notes:
A vulnerable road user is considered invisible if a driver cannot see their head. The calculations use the heights to the shoulders of 5th percentile United States female vulnerable road users. By VRU, the heights to shoulders are: preschool child 28 inches, elementary school child 37 inches, elementary school child on bicycle 35 inches, wheelchair user 39 inches, adult on bicycle 47 inches, adult 49 inches.
This document is funded by the Santos Family Foundation and disseminated under the
sponsorship of the Department of Transportation in the interest of information exchange. The United States
Government assumes no liability for the contents or use thereof. The United States Government does not
endorse products, manufacturers, or state or local policies or laws unless specifically indicated. Trade or
manufacturers’ names may appear herein solely because they are considered essential to the objective of this
document. Site contents represent the best technical judgement of U.S. DOT Volpe Center staff based on their
independent and objective technical analysis and expertise, and are not to be misconstrued as statements of
U.S. DOT policy or guidance.